Muscle aches, bruises, sprains
DOKBUASEE
Plai
scientific name: Zingiber cassumunar Roxb.
Family name: Zingiberaceae
Botanical Characteristics
Plai is a perennial herbaceous plant growing approximately 0.7–1.5 meters tall. It has an underground rhizome with brownish-yellow skin. The fresh rhizome is yellow to yellow-green inside, juicy, and aromatic.
The plant grows in clumps, forming pseudostems from overlapping leaf sheaths. Leaves are simple, alternate, arranged in one plane, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, 3.5–5.5 cm wide and 18–35 cm long. The upper leaf surface is dark green, while the underside is lighter.
The inflorescence emerges directly from the underground rhizome. Bracts are reddish-purple with green margins, resembling lotus petals. The flowers are pale yellow, delicate, and visually striking. The fruit is a small, round, dry capsule containing many black, glossy seeds.
The aerial parts die back during the dry season, and new growth appears in the rainy season.
Bioactive Compounds Related to Pain and Inflammation
Phenylbutanoids
Research on phenylbutanoids.
Research has identified phenylbutanoid compounds (numbers 1–6) isolated from Zingiber cassumunar rhizomes. These compounds were evaluated for their ability to inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and reduce prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) production in mouse macrophage cells.
COX-2 inhibition → reduced PGE₂ production → anti-inflammatory effect
Phenylbutanoid dimers (compounds 1 and 2) showed the strongest COX-2 inhibition, while monomers (compounds 3 and 4) demonstrated moderate activity.
Plai contains natural anti-inflammatory compounds, with dimeric structures exhibiting stronger activity than monomeric forms.
Additionally, phenylbutanoid-enriched extracts of Z. cassumunar (PZEs) were shown to inhibit nitric oxide (NO) production in mouse macrophages, further supporting their anti-inflammatory potential.
Volatile Oils / Essential Oil Constituents
Plai contains essential oils that may help relieve irritation and pain when applied topically by providing a cooling or soothing sensation. Key components include:
- Sabinene
- Terpinen-4-ol
- α-Pinene, β-Pinene, Myrcene, Limonene, γ-Terpinene, p-Cymene
These compounds are believed to possess anti-inflammatory and counter-irritant properties, which may help reduce short-term pain perception through topical application.
Traditional Thai Medicinal Uses of Plai
Leaves: Bitter taste; relieve general body aches and fatigue
Flowers: Bitter; reduce internal bruising, disperse blood clots, promote circulation, eliminate stagnant blood
Stems: Astringent and bitter; treat digestive disorders and imbalance
Roots: Bitter; help relieve nosebleeds, blood vomiting
Rhizomes: Astringent and bitter; widely used to Relieve numbness and muscle pain, Treat abdominal pain, diarrhea, dysentery, Reduce inflammation of the intestines, Relieve sprains, strains, ankle injuries, Treat skin conditions, boils, wounds, Act as a local anesthetic, Relieve muscle aches and joint pain,
Research-Based Benefits of Plai
Anti-inflammatory Effects
Purified compounds from plai, such as (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) butadiene (DMPBD), were tested in mice with ear and paw edema. Results showed significant reduction in swelling—more effective than some conventional anti-inflammatory drugs, with peak effects observed within 30 minutes.
Another compound, (E)-4-(3′,4′-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-1-ol (Compound D), was studied in rheumatoid arthritis models. It reduced inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β), decreased matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and helped protect cartilage from degradation.
Antioxidant and Cell-Protective Effects
Phenylbutenoid extracts (PE) from plai rhizomes demonstrated: Reduced inflammatory mediators (NO, TNF-α, IL-1β) ,Decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) ,Inhibition of inflammatory signaling proteins (p38, ERK, Akt) ,Prevention of apoptosis (cell death)
These findings indicate strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties with protective effects on cells.
Pain-Relieving Effects
Compound D was tested in mice using an acetic acid–induced pain model. The compound significantly reduced abdominal writhing responses, indicating effective analgesic activity related to inflammatory pain.
Clinical Applications for Pain Management
Plai oil vs. Diclofenac gel (1%) In patients with myofascial pain syndrome, plai oil significantly improved neck flexion and extension within 3 days. Pain relief was comparable to diclofenac gel.
Plai compress vs. placebo and NSAIDs Plai herbal compresses reduced pain significantly more than placebo and showed comparable effectiveness to NSAIDs.
Though improvements in flexibility and quality of life were similar to placebo.
Plai cream vs. Diclofenac gel No statistically significant difference (p < 0.05). Plai cream showed slightly better outcomes in pain reduction and daily activity performance.
Plai balm for diabetic neuropathic pain A 15% w/w plai balm significantly reduced pain scores by at least 50% in 75% of patients, compared to 20% in the placebo group (p = 0.004).
Conclusion: Plai balm is effective and safe for reducing neuropathic pain in diabetic patients.
Safety Profile
Toxicity studies in animals showed:
- Single oral dose of 5,000 mg/kg: no toxicity or mortality
- Repeated administration for 270 days (up to 1,125 mg/kg/day): no toxic effects
- No abnormal findings in physical examinations or histopathology of organs
Plai extracts demonstrate high safety and good tolerance in both short- and long-term use.
Reference
Chaiwongsa, R., Ongchai, S., Boonsing, P., Kongtawelert, P., Panthong, A., & Reutrakul, V. (2013). Active compound of Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. down-regulates the expression of genes involved in joint erosion in a human synovial fibroblast cell line. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 10(1), 40–48. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3746356/
Gundom, T., Sukketsiri, W., & Panichayupakaranant, P. (2025). Phytochemical analysis and biological effects of Zingiber cassumunar extract and three phenylbutenoids: Targeting NF-κB, Akt/MAPK, and caspase-3 pathways. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 25, 180. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-025-04907-w
Jeenapongsa, R. (1994). Anti-inflammatory activity of DMPBD, a phenylbutanoid from Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. (Master’s thesis, Mahidol University). [In Thai]
Jatuten, N., Piyakunmala, P., Budkaew, J., & Chumworathayi, B. (2023). Effect of topical Zingiber cassumunar on painful diabetic neuropathy: A double-blind randomized-controlled trial. F1000Research, 12, 334. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.131344.2
Kaewchoothong, A., Tewtrakul, S., & Panichayupakaranant, P. (2012). Inhibitory effect of phenylbutanoid-rich Zingiber cassumunar extracts on nitric oxide production by murine macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells. Phytotherapy Research, 26(12), 1789–1792. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.4661
Kim, S., Lee, H., Moon, T. C., Lee, E., & Kim, J. (2005). Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory phenylbutenoids from the rhizomes of Zingiber cassumunar. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 53(6), 709–711.
Koontongkaew, S. (2014). Safety evaluation of Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. rhizome extract: Acute and chronic oral toxicity studies in Sprague–Dawley rats. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2014, 632608. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/632608
Panthong, A., Kanjanapothi, D., Niwatananant, W., Tuntiwachwuttikul, P., & Reutrakul, V. (1997). Anti-inflammatory activity of compound D {(E)-4-(3′,4′-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-2-ol} isolated from Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. Phytomedicine, 4(3), 207–212.
Thai Herbal Pharmacopoeia Committee. (2021). Thai Herbal Pharmacopoeia (THP 2021) Supplement 2024: Monographs—Zingiberis montani rhizoma (Plai) & Curcumae longae rhizoma (Turmeric). Bureau of Drug and Narcotic, Department of Medical Sciences, Ministry of Public Health.
https://bdn-thp.dmsc.moph.go.th/ebook/qQOcZUtkpR9gC3q0GT5gMJq0qT5co3uw
Wisuitiprot, V., Bumrungchaichana, W., Kaewtai, N., Rawangking, A., Saiphanit, S., Lasongmuang, K., Meekai, N., & Wisuitiprot, W. (2019). Effectiveness of a plai oil prepared by Thai traditional medicine process in the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Health Science and Medical Research, 37(3), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.31584/jhsmr.201954
Worasing, K., Sungthong, B., & Phimarn, W. (2023). Effectiveness of Zingiber montanum herbal compress remedy for pain management: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientia Pharmaceutica, 91(2), 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/scipharm91020024
คณะเภสัชศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยอุบลราชธานี. (ม.ป.ป.). ไพล. สืบค้นจาก https://phar.ubu.ac.th/herb-DetailThaicrudedrug/96
ฐานข้อมูลสมุนไพรไทยเขตอีสานใต้ คณะเภสัชศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยอุบลราชธานี. (2568). ไพล. สืบค้นจาก https://phar.ubu.ac.th/herb-DetailPhargarden/192
ดร.วุฒิ วุฒิธรรมเวช. (2558). ไพล. ใน ดร.วุฒิ วุฒิธรรมเวช (บ.ก.), ย่อเภสัชกรรมไทยและสรรพคุณสมุนไพร (พิมพ์ครั้งที่ 4, น. 163). บริษัท ศิลป์สยามบรรจุภัณฑ์และการพิมพ์ จำกัด.
สมชาย ใจดี, & สมหญิง รักษ์ไทย. (2566). ประสิทธิผลของการประคบสมุนไพรไพลในการลดอาการปวด. วารสารโรงพยาบาลมหาสารคาม, 20(2), 45–58. https://he02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/MKHJ/article/view/254349/172893